SYMBOLISM IN THE SAMARIA IVORIES AND ARCHITECTURE

Situated at the crossroads of great nations, the Land of Israel was exposed to numerous external influences. Samaria, the capital city of Northern Israel, was also situated on a major trade route. Various expeditions uncovered approximately 500 pieces of carved ivory in the palace complex at Samaria. According to the motifs carved in them, these pieces can be divided into two main groups. The first group is categorised by the Harpocra- tes medallion. The Hah and Isis and Nephtys plaques are also relevant in this case. The second group consists mainly of the so-called Woman at the Window, the Winged Sphinx, Winged Figures in Human Form, Horus and Ma’at, the Lion and Bull Plaques, as well as the Tree of Life Motif in ivory. The latter is also represented in the Proto-Ionic capitals uncovered at many different sites, including Samaria. This article discusses the different cultural influences and motifs, and explains their presence.


INTRODUCTION
The Land of Israel is located at the crossroads of great nations. It is therefore not surprising to find a variety of external influences. Samaria, the capital city of Northern Israel, was located on a major trade route which also exposed the inhabitants to external influences (Dorsey 1987:60-61).
The first major excavation project at Samaria was undertaken in 1908-10 by the Harvard expedition led by G.A. Reisner and C.S. Fisher. This expedition uncovered the richness of the available material but unfortunately lacked the expertise to interpret the finds. Another expedition in which the Palestine Exploration Fund, British Academy, the British School of Archaeology in Jerusa lem, the Hebrew University and the Harvard University combined their proficiency and funds led to a fuller and better investigation. This combined effort lasted for three seasons. Thereafter the British members continued excavations for a fourth season. Unfortunately, the olive groves and gardens cultivated on the hill impeded the excavations (Ackroyd 1967:343). This ground plan from SS 2 (1939:3) gives an indication of where the different expeditions found their ivories.
Unfortunately, only a small portion of the ivories found in Samaria could be restored (Kenyon 1960:266). Two main groups of the ivories found at Samaria will be discussed.

First group
This group is characterised by the Harpocrates Medallion (Crowfoot, Crowfoot & ELSukenik 1938:

The Harpocrates Medallion
The Harpocrates Medallion represents Horus as an infant framed by two incurving volutes. Horus sits on (or emerges from) a lotus flower and wears an atef crown 2 on spreading ram's horns. In the centre is a bundle of reeds with a A decorated bedstead (Mallowan 1966:495) 1 Henceforth Crowfoot, Crowfoot and ELSukenik (1938) will be referred to as SS1 & SS 2. 2 According to the British Museum website, the Atef crown was a white headdress decorated with ostrich feathers and worn during some religious rituals.
A Line drawing of the same bedstead (Mittmann 1976:162) disc on top, flanked by plumes and uraeuses. 3 Around his neck is a necklace and on each arm two bracelets. It appears that he holds a flail in his right hand and holds the finger of his left hand to his lips in a childlike manner. On each side of the lotus flower is a blue water lily leaf (SS 2:12). The volutes curving around the child may symbolise the birth process or perhaps the security within the womb.
The Harpocrates plaque was richly decorated with coloured insets and gold foil (SS 2:12).
Harpocrates seated on a lotus (SS 2 frontispiece) 4 The example on the right-hand side is a faience plaque depicting a king as a child emerging from a lotus flower (Taylor 2000:348). Two other fragments depicting Horus were also found.
The infant Horus sitting on a lotus flower was a very popular motif in the first millennium B.C. It was also found at Arslan Tash, Tell Nimrud, Phoenicia and on Hebrew seals (SS 2:13). As one of the oldest and most important gods of Egypt, Horus is represented by different names and in different images: As the god of heaven he is sometimes represented as a hawk or a human with a hawk face or even as a human and was considered the god incarnate in the Pharaoh. In the Osiris saga he was the son of Osiris and Isis. In Heliopolis he is merged with Re as Re-Horakhty. As one of the most important and oldest 3 The uraeus is a serpent emblem and portrays royalty and deity. It is a symbol of divine authority. 4 This full colour drawing of the Harpocrates Medallion was done by Mr. Charbury and is published as the frontispiece to SS 2.
Faience plaque depicting an infant king emerging from a lotus (Iuput II?) (Taylor 2000:348) 52 gods, many different shapes and concepts developed in respect of him. As son of Isis, he was known as Harsiesis; as the adult Horus, he was known as Haroeris (at Kom Ombo); as the child of Isis, he was known as Harpokrates 5 (Brunner-Traut 1988:90).

The Hah Plaque 5
The name Harpokrates is the Greek derivative of the Egyptian Harpa-Khruti (Horus the Child) who was portrayed as a small boy with a finger held to his lips (cf. the Harpokrates Medallion above). 6 Cf. King (1988/39); Hah grasps two palm branches.
The Hah plaque (SS 2 plate II:2) Hah, the Egyptian god of the sky, personifies eternity. With widespread arms he supports the sky. The hieroglyph is also the symbol for the figure one million. In each hand he grasps a notched stick 6 from which an ankh sign hangs. The Egyptians put a notch in branches of the Persea palm to measure the passing years. He and his female consort, Hauhet, were depicted as frogs. They also symbolised infinite time (cf. discussion by Vendel 2008 The notched palm branches curl in from both sides to the figure's head. Sometimes Hah is represented as a squatting man with both hands raised, with a stick protruding from his head (Clark 1995.258).
Hah originates from Hermopolis in Upper Egypt and he and his wife were one of four pairs of reptiles created by Thot. Hah has no temple because he represents an abstract spirit. He wears simple clothing and sits on a stool that resembles the hieroglyph for gold.

Isis and Nephtys
Samaria open ivory work: Isis and Nephtys (4,5 cm) (Barkay 1992:322; cf. SS 2 plate III:1) Line drawing (Mittmann 1976:162) 54 Isis was depicted in human form with the hieroglyph for "throne" or with the sun disk between cow horns on her head (Traut-Brunner 1988:91). She was the wife of Osiris and the mother of Horus (Bonnet 1971:326). As a mother feeding her child, Harpokrates, she is an example of the Madonna and the Child Jesus as seen at Philae (Traut-Brunner 1988:91).
Nephtys was the youngest of four children of Geb and Nut, and the last member of the nine gods of On. Her function was normally regarded as the "lady of the house" (Bonnet 1971:518). Anubis was her son by Osiris.
A plain border frames the plaque. Apart from insignificant fractures, the plaque appears to be quite intact. In the centre can be seen a djed 7 symbol, crowned with a disc. On both sides squatting figures decorated with necklaces and crowned with discs can be discerned. The djed 8 symbol identifies them as Isis and Nephtys (SS II:16).

Isis
Isis and Horus Nephtys The first group clearly shows Egyptian influence and represents a period when Egypt still had a strong influence in Palestine (SS II:49).

Second group
The second group is characterised by the so-called "Lady at the Window", a winged sphinx, a second sphinx in relief, and the lion and bull plaques (SS 2 plate x:1). It reminds one strongly of the Arslan Tash ivories, discovered by M. Thureau-Dangin. 7 The Djed pillar is a symbol of the god Osiris, and symbolises his backbone. 8 Cf. Vincent Brown (vincent+pyramidtextsonline.com Another example from Arslan Tash (Monson 2000:33) 56 The example on the left was found with other objects by Henry Layard at Nimrud and was once part of a panel inlaid in furniture from the North-West Palace of Ashurnasirpal II (the site of the ancient Assyrian capital of Kalhu) (Layard 1849: plates 88-91).
The woman's hairstyle is clearly Egyptian and she appears to be looking out of a window. This often indicated sacred prostitution associated with Astarte or Ishtar and the fertility cult. The meaning of this depiction is not clear. 9 The Woman at the Window reminds one of Jezebel's action during the revolution of Jehu. "When Jehu came to Jezreel, Jezebel heard of it; and she painted her eyes, and adorned her head, and looked out of the window" (2 Kings 9:30).
The Deuteronomist is clearly somewhat prejudiced against Jezebel and reminds the reader of other women who looked through windows under similar negative circumstances. Judges 5:28: "Out of the window she peered, The mother of Sisera gazed through the lattice." Furthermore, when David brought the Ark to Jerusalem his wife Michal looked down at him with disdain through the window: As the ark of the Lord came into the city of David, Michal the daughter of Saul looked out of the window, and saw King David leaping and dancing before the Lord; and she despised him in her heart (2 Samuel 6:16; cf. Gaines 2000).
The Deuteronomist appears to call all unpopular women to mind, applying the notion to Jezebel. Perhaps he also tries to connect the appearance of Jezebel at the window to sacred prostitution. However, it is clear that he uses the power of suggestion in this instance. Jezebel is never described as someone committing adultery and the connection to sacred prostitution must be ruled out in this instance.
It is also interesting that Jezebel seems very regal in appearance and in her remarks. She calls Jehu Zimri, because Zimri was in the true sense a usurper and committed regicide by killing king Elah (1 Kings 16:10). Omri, on the contrary, returned from his battle against the Philistines at Gibbethon to defend the throne against Zimri. In the meantime the army made Omri king while still on the battlefield (1 Kings 16:16). 9 Versions of these panels can be seen decorating the legs of a couch on which King Ashurbanipal reclines in the "Garden Party" scene at Nineveh. Three examples were found, with the one on the left practically intact. A three fold frame can be seen above and below. The Sphinx walks through what seems to be a lotus thicket wearing a flattened double crown, a wig and a patterned kilt (or apron, cf. King 1988:34). These figures are reminiscent of the temple built by Solomon. According to 1 Kings 6:23-29, he put two winged cherubim, made from olive wood, in the inner sanctuary. He also carved figures of cherubim and palm trees as well as open flowers on the walls of the temple. The doorposts at the entrance were also decorated with "carved cherubim and palm trees and open flowers" (1 Kings 6:35).

The Winged Figures in Human Form
(SS 2 plate IV, 1a & 3a) The Winged Sphinx from Arslan Tash (Borowski 1995:36) Horus and Ma'at (SS 2:19) 58 Although the figures from Samaria were very fragmentary they could be restored by comparing them to the example found in the temple of Khons in Karnak. On the right the top image shows a figure seated on a lotus flower holding an ankh. On his head is a crown similar to the crown on the head of the infant Horus on the Harpocrates Medallion: an atef crown on spreading ram's horns. On both sides are kneeling figures crowned with a uraeus. The larger figures are clearly representing Ma'at. Her emblem, a feather, can be seen in the hands of the female figures. Ma'at was depicted in human form and was the personification of law, order and truth. She was the daughter of Re (Traut-Brunner 1988:91).
In the bottom image the flanking female figures are seated, still holding the Ma'at feathers. The central figure can now be identified as Horus. He still holds the ankh but he no longer sits on a lotus flower [SS 2:19]. Presumably this is the reason for depicting him as an adult in this instance.

The Lion and Bull Plaques
Samaria Ivory (SS 2 Plate x:1) This scene was very fashionable in ancient art. The lion symbolised power and majesty and was also used in language. Jacob compared his son Judah to a lion: "Judah is a lion's whelp; from the prey, my son, thou art gone up; he stooped down, he couched as a lion, and as an old lion; who shall rouse him up?" (Gen. 49:9) (cf. Singer 1992:52). "They gaped upon me with their mouths, as a ravening and a roaring lion" (Psalm 22:13). "A lion which is strongest among beasts, and turneth not away from any" (Proverbs 30:31).
Arslan Tash (?) (Singer 1992:52) 59 2.2.5 The Tree of Life Motif According to Shiloh (1979:26), the basic pattern underlying this motif, on both the capitals and the ivories, is the palm tree. He also regards this motif, in all its manifestations, as a typical ornamental feature of Western Asia. The "Tree of Life" motif was found at different sites in the Middle East (Shiloh 1979:26-42). It was used in architecture (the so-called proto-ionic capitals), as decorations on pottery vessels, cylinder seals and ivory inlay work. It can also be seen in different stylised renderings. (Keel 1984:64) According to Keel (1984:64), the goddesses of love in Mesopotamia and Egypt, Ishtar and Hathor, were embodied in the palm tree. A palm branch sym bolised the enjoyment of life in paradise. The palm motif was also used in different cultic prac tices (Lev. 23:40;. He also suggests that palm branches were used to symbolise triumph. Examples of this can be seen in Jesus' entry into Jerusalem (John 12:13) and the triumphant rejoicing of the peoples around the throne of God and the Lamb (Rev. 7:9). Solomon also made use of the palm motif as decoration in the temple he built (1 Kings 6:29, 32, 35). The use of this motif was not limited to Palestine but was common in the countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea.

Figures on gold leaf from Enkomi in Cyprus
Egyptian relief from Abusir. A goddess in the form of a palm tree feeding the dead (Keel 1984:65) The proto-Ionic 10 capital was usually associated with gate complexes. Several examples were found at Hazor; the reconstruction of the entrance to the citadel illustrates the point (Yadin 1975:168). The examples found at Samaria can also be associated with the entrance structures (Shiloh 1979:86) Reconstruction of columns with proto-Ionic capitals at Samaria (SS 1, fig. 7) Ivory from Samaria (SS 2: plate xx:1) 10 This architectural feature is also known as Proto-Aeolic and palmette capital (Drinkard 1997:249).
Reconstruction of a citadel entrance at Hazor (Yadin 1975:168;Shiloh 1979:24) Ivory from Samaria (SS 2: plate xx1:1) 62 2.2.6 Other variations of this motif Etruscan capital from Chiusu (Shiloh 1979:41) This ivory carving (on the left) was found at Arslan Tash and dates from 850-750 B.C. In heraldic style the two sphinxes flank the centrally placed tree with the now common tree with volutes (Williams & Hein 1985:145). The sphinxes clearly show the Egyptian influence as they both have stylised ram heads reminiscent of the ram god Chnum (Traut-Brunner 1988:89). It also confirms that the Egyptian motif is combined with the popular sacred tree/tree of life motif common in Syro-Palestine. It also reflects contacts with other Mediterranean countries.

Phoenician ivories from Cyprus
The Winged Sphinx from Salamis, Cyprus. (Bikai 1989:205) 3. CONCLUSIONS The first group clearly shows Egyptian influence and represents a period • when Egypt still had a significant influence in Palestine (SS II:49).
The local artisans combined the Egyptian influence with their own popu-• lar motifs. For many centuries Egyptian cultural influence dominated the scene in the Levant and the cultural heritage it left was not totally eradicated by their loss of power. Despite the Egyptian influence it did not escape the local adaptation by indigenous artisans (Giveon 1978:42). The local artisans added their own style to the Egyptian motifs as seen in the two ivory examples found at Salamis on Cyprus.
Taking into account the area where these ivories were found, the religious • influence should not be considered as a major development. The ivories were found in a palace complex and therefore the idea of style and fashion should be considered in this instance despite possible Egyptian religious motifs. If they were found in a temple this argument could be reconsidered. There may be a religious connection but it appears that it is mainly of cultural-historical nature.
Tree of Life?
In Samaria there was also another find suggesting a diplomatic gift to the • House of Omri. This find is part of an alabaster vase with traces of the cartouches of Osorkon II. Osorkon II could not successfully establish his authority over Egypt, let alone lead a conquest to establish an effective counter balance to the emerging common enemy, Assyria. He had, therefore, to resort to diplomacy (Kitchen 1973:293-300). This coincided with the policies initiated by Omri who eventually established a line of Allied Nations from Phoenicia in the north, through Israel and Judah to Egypt. This not only isolated and neutralised the Philistines on the Coastal Plain but also allowed Israel to strengthen her north-eastern boundaries with Syria (Pienaar 1981: 151-57) The widespread use of the Tree of Life motif leads to the following possible • conclusions: -According to Keel (1984:64), the goddesses of love in Mesopotamia and Egypt, Ishtar and Hathor, were embodied in the palm tree. - The motif also symbolises power, triumph (Keel 1984:64) and abundance (Ornan 1995:38).
-The stylised palm tree clearly expresses a feeling of beauty and art. The sphinx-like figures are reminiscent of the cherubim of the Old Testament • and therefore they may convey the idea of power and holiness . According to Ornan, sphinxes reflected royalty in Egypt while elsewhere the composite figures were protective beings.
These motifs in ivory, gold leaf, bone, bricks and stone became a metaphor • for expressing ideas concerning religion, law, order, righteousness and many other cultural activities.
The power of fashion should never be underestimated, as it is a typical • human trait to keep up with fashion.