CAUSES OF DEATH AMONG THE CAESARS (27 BC-AD 476)

The Roman Empire was ruled by 77 emperors between 27 BC and AD 476 (503 years); 18 (23,4%) of them held sway during the Early Empire (27 BC–AD 193, 220 years), and 59 (76,6%) during the Late Empire (193-476, 283 years). On the average em- perors in the Early Empire ruled for a longer period (12,7 years as against 6,0 years), and died slightly later (53,4 years as against 46,0 years) than subsequent emperors. During the Early Empire 55,6% of the emperors died of natural causes or illness, as against 25,4% during the Late Empire. Of the second group more were murdered or executed (55,9% versus 33,3%) and more died on the battlefield (5 versus none). The incidence of suicide was slightly higher among the early emperors (11,1% as against 6,8%). Seven emperors abdicated before death brought an end to their rule — only 2 died of natural causes. 30 of the 33 murdered were killed by the sword or dagger (5 were beheaded), one was strangled, one was hanged and one was killed by stoning.


INTRODUCTION
After its founding, traditionally dated to 753 BC, Rome was ruled by kings as a city-state for two centuries, until in 509 BC a republic was established, to be ruled by a Senate led by two consuls who were elected annually. As its area of influence increased, this republican system of government became ineffective, and in 27 BC Augustus became the first Roman Emperor. From then until the deposition of the last emperor, the 16 year old Romulus Augustulus, by Germanic invaders from the North in 476, the Western Roman Empire was ruled by 77 emperors. After this, the Eastern Roman Empire, with Constantinople as its capital, continued to exist for a further ten centuries, until 1453.
This article investigates the causes of the deaths of the emperors who ruled the Empire from Rome over a period of 503 years.  Table I provides details pertaining to 77 emperors. 1 The Roman Empire may be viewed as comprising two eras, namely the Early Roman Empire, 27 BC-AD 193 (a period of 220 years) and the Later Roman Empire, 193-AD 476 (283 years). 2 The emperors who ruled during the two eras -the initial flowering and the later gradual decline of the empire -will be discussed separately. Certain emperors will not be considered: the interloper-emperors who were not officially recognised in Rome, the Gallic emperors (260-274), and emperors who ruled in Constantinople (the Eastern Roman Empire).

EMPERORS
It is clear that the Early Roman Empire was characterised by longer regnal periods (averaging 12,7 years) than the Later Roman Empire (averaging 6 years). The earlier period consequently had proportionally fewer emperors than the later period: 18 as opposed to 59. The average age at death of the first group (53,4) was slightly higher than that of the second (46).
In the Later Roman Empire in particular, it was not uncommon for emperors to rule jointly, or for their regnal periods to overlap in part, with the result that the 503 calendar years between 27 BC and AD 476 equate to 583 regnal years. In two cases (Trajan and Lucius Verus) death due to apoplectic stroke is documented, and a further two (Titus and Nerva) died of an acute fever which could have been malaria.
Tiberius died in frail age in AD 37, after a final episode of fever about which no details are known. 4 Marcus Aurelius (Fig. 14) had a chronic affliction of the lungs, but died in AD 180 after complaining of acute abdominal problems and a fever which may have been smallpox, since it occurred at the time of the so-called Epidemic of Antoninus (165-189), which was probably smallpox. 5 He was a regular user of theriac (which contains opium) as an all-purpose remedy against poison, hence it has been suggested that opium addiction may have contributed to his final illness; others are of the opinion that he had terminal internal cancer. 6 4.
THE LATER  The causes of the deaths of the 59 emperors of this era are presented in Table III. 10

Natural causes and disease
Fifteen of the emperors died of natural causes. In seven cases (as listed in Table III) the exact nature of the death is uncertain. In the remaining cases there are indications of the process of certain diseases. Septimius Severus (Fig. 19) suffered for a long time from severe gout, and his prolonged terminal illness (211) could have been caused by complications related to that disease. Jovian died in Asia Minor during a campaign (364), being overcome by gas from a brazier in his tent, in the manner of classic carbon monoxide poisoning. As Table IV indicates, more of the Early Roman Empire's emperors died of natural causes and disease than in the later period -55.6% as against 25.4%. Similarly, fewer -33.3% as against 55.9% -were murdered or executed in the earlier period. Suicide was rare in both groups -two of the eighteen emperors in the earlier era as against four of the 59 in the later era. Five emperors of the Later Roman Empire died on the battlefield, as against none in the earlier era.

CONCLUSION
It has also been shown that the emperors of the earlier era ruled on average twice as long as those in the later era -12,7 years as against 6,0 years -and that they died at a slightly more advanced age -53,4 as against 46 (Table I).
These data also confirm that the Early Roman Empire was characterised by more stable governance and a higher rate of survival among the emperors than the later era.