POTENTIAL SOURCES OF TRANSMISSION OF HOSPITAL ACQUIRED INFECTIONS IN THE VOLTA REGIONAL HOSPITAL IN GHANA

Background: The study was undertaken to assess potential sources that might transmit Hospital Acquired Infections in the Volta Regional Hospital of Ghana. Method: A total of 218 swabs were taken over a six month study period of two weeks sampling bi-monthly from 33 different door handles, taps, desk surfaces and lavatories and 15 different surfaces in the theatre before and after cleaning on each sampling day. The swabs were cultured on Blood, Chocolate and MacConkey agars and incubated for 24hrs at 35±2oC after which isolates were identified morphologically and biochemically. Results: A total of 187 (88.8%) bacterial isolates were obtained from the swabs (P<0.0017) made up of 55.5% non-pathogenic isolates, 33.3% pathogenic isolates and 14.2% no bacteria growth. There was significant difference between pathogenic isolates and no bacterial growth (P=0.0244). The largest pathogenic isolates were S. aureus (57.6%) and E. coli (39.4%) whilst Bacillus spp. was the only non-pathogenic isolate. Door handles of the various wards and theatre had the highest total bacterial isolates (25.7%), followed by the lavatories (24.6%); whereas the lavatories recorded the most pathogenic isolate (21), followed by taps. There was no change in S. aureus isolate numbers after cleaning whereas E. coli decreased by (26.7%) and Bacillus spp. increase by (32.7%). Conclusion: The high percentage of pathogenic isolates of S. aureus and E. coli as well as Bacillus spp. on fomites at the Volta Regional Hospital indicates a high potential risk of HAI in the hospital.


INTRODUCTION
2] HAIs could be in the form of crossinfection, endogenous infection and or environmental infection (from an inanimate objects or substances recently contaminated from another human source. 2A prevalence survey in 2002 conducted under the auspices of the World Health Organization (WHO) in 55 hospitals in 14 countries representing four WHO Regions (Europe, Eastern Mediterranean, South-East Asia and Western Pacific) showed an average of 8.7% of hospital patients had HAIs. 3 Some of the factors that influence the nature and frequency of HAIs include resistance to antimicrobial agents, intrinsic virulence, and amount (inoculum) of infective material. 4Nosocomial infections are the most common complications affecting hospitalized patients, with 5% to 10% of patients admitted to US acute care hospitals acquiring one or more infections. 5[11] This is particularly important in developing countries where very little amount of resources are available for use for an unbearable number of patients.It is believed that one third of nosocomial infections are considered preventable and that as many as 92 percent of deaths from hospital infections could be prevented. 12 South Africa it is estimated that approximately 1 in 7 patients entering South African hospitals are at high risk of acquiring an HAI of which lower respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, bloodstream infections and post-surgical infections account for the majority (about 80%) of HAIs. 13It is extrapolated that the rate of incidence of HAI infections in Ghana is approximately 152, 000 out of 20.7million people. 14In spite of the health risks and financial burden associated with HAIs, not much has been done by government and hospital authorities to arrest the situation in Ghana.This study therefore evaluated the potential of the transmission of HAIs in the Volta Regional Hospital, Ho in Ghana.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was undertaken at the Volta Regional Hospital, a referral hospital that serves the people of Ho and the entire Volta region in Ghana as well as clients from the neighbouring country, Togo between September, 2009 and April, 2010.Samples were taken from the hospital and bacteriological analysis undertaken in the Microbiology laboratory of the same hospital.

Sampling
The Experimentation technique was used to isolate organisms from fomites of which taps, nurse's desks, main door handles, and door surfaces of lavatories and the various theatres that might serve as sources for transmission of HAIs within the hospital were selected based on their contact frequency with both patients and healthcare practitioners.
A swab stick was used to do swabs of taps, nurses' desks, main door handles, and door surfaces of lavatories and the various theatres of the hospital.Samples were taken in a six month period, bi-monthly, two weeks in each sampling month leading to the same surface being sampled thrice.One sample was taken just before cleaning and the other after cleaning of the same surface.The cleaning solution used in the hospital consisted of a mixture of dichloro-meta-xylenol and ethanol in water.A total of 218 swabs were obtained.

Isolation of Organisms
Standard isolation techniques were employed in isolation of organisms.Swabs were immediately transported to the laboratory and incubated in peptone water overnight at 35±2˚C to encourage growth.Growth in peptone water was observed and streaked on Blood, Mac-Conkey and Chocolate Agars for 24hrs at 35±2˚C for colony isolation and morphological identification.

Identification of Organisms
Pure isolated colonies were Gram differentiated and then biochemically identified using Indole, Catalase, Citrate, Oxidase, Coagulase, and Urease tests. 15

Statistical Analysis
Data obtained in the study were statistically analyzed using Statview from SAS Version 5.0.The means were separated using double-tailed Paired Means Comparison.P≤0.05 was considered significant.

RESULTS
Results from the study showed 88.8% bacterial isolates from the surfaces sampled made up of 55.5% Nonpathogenic bacteria, 33.3% pathogenic bacteria and 14.2%No Bacteria Growth (NBG).First sampling had the highest pathogenic bacteria of (32.9%) whilst the third sampling had the highest Non-pathogenic bacteria (58.3%).
Figure 1 shows that the first sampling had the highest No Bacteria Growth (NBG) (16.4%).S. aureus was the highest pathogenic isolate (57.6%), followed by E. coli (39.4%) and P. aureginosa (3%).Bacillus spp. was the only Non-pathogenic and highest isolate (121) as well as the largest colonizer of all the surfaces such as door handles (42), desks (32), lavatories (25), taps (14), doors of laboratories ( 6) and theatre (2).S. aureus followed with (12) isolates each on taps and lavatories, (7) in the theatre, (4) on door handles and (3) on the desks.The largest number of E. coli was isolated from the desks (10), followed by the lavatories (8), taps (5) and one each from door handles, theatre and door of the laboratory (Figure 3).About a third (31.8%) of the pathogenic isolates were obtained from the lavatories, followed by 25.8% from taps, 19.7% from desks, 12.1% theatre, and 9.1% door of handles and 1.5% door of laboratory.
Bacillus spp.increased from 52 to 69 bacteria isolates after cleaning, E. coli decreased from 15 to 11 whilst S. aureus and P. aureginosa remained unchanged before and after cleaning (Figure 4).

DISCUSSION
Results from the study showed a marked significant number of bacterial isolates 88.8% (P-0.0017)from the surfaces sampled made up of 55.5% non-pathogenic bacteria, 33.3% pathogenic bacteria and 14.2%No Bacteria Growth (NBG).There was a significant difference between pathogenic bacteria isolates and NBG (P-0.0244).This indicates the potential transmission of pathogenic bacteria to patients and staff in the hospital and confirms research by 12 that a low of 15% pathogenic isolates in a hospital ward result in a 10% chance of patients acquiring HAIs.
There was no significant difference (P-0.8740) between number and type of isolates over the three sampling periods (Figure 1).S. aureus was the highest pathogenic isolate (57.6%) although not significantly different from E. coli (39.4%) with P=0.2254 (Figure 2).This confirm work in which S. aureus and E. coli have been found to be among the predominant organisms that are isolated in hospitals and among the leading causes of HAIs. 2,16cillus spp. was the only non-pathogenic bacteria isolate and its distribution over the sampled surfaces showed that it was the most predominant organism colonising these surfaces (Figure 3).The extent of colonisation could be explained by the fact that Bacillus spp.are ubiquitous in nature with their spores able to resist environmental changes, withstand dry heat and certain chemical disinfectants for moderate periods. 16e colonisation of many surfaces by Bacillus spp. is therefore justified especially before cleaning however since the hospital is an environment with a lot of immuno-compromised patients; aseptic techniques should be able to deal with even non-pathogenic bacteria since they can cause infection in immuno-compromised individuals.The lavatory (31.8%), tap (25.8%), and writing desks (19.7%) recorded the highest pathogenic isolates.
The tap and the lavatory had the highest isolate of S. aureus confirming earlier research that showed that S. aureus colonises such areas as the sink and the lavatory. 17The 25.8% pathogenic isolates from taps also confirms earlier works that found taps to usually have the most pathogenic isolates but the least total bacterial colonisation as a result of their persistent contact with detergents during washing.
Results from the study showed a marked significant number of bacterial isolates 88.8% (P=0.0017)from the surfaces sampled made up of 55.5% non-pathogenic bacteria, 33.3% pathogenic bacteria and 14.2%No Bacteria Growth (NBG).There was a significant difference between pathogenic bacteria isolates and NBG (P=0.0244).This indicates the potential transmission of pathogenic bacteria to patients and staff in the hospital and confirms research by 12 hat a low of 15% pathogenic isolates in a hospital ward result in a 10% chance of patients acquiring HAIs.
There was no significant difference (P=0.8740) between number and type of isolates over the three sampling periods (Figure 1).S. aureus was the highest pathogenic isolate (57.6%) although not significantly different from E. coli (39.4%) with P-0.2254 (Figure 2).This confirm works in which S. aureus and E. coli have been found to be among the predominant organisms that are isolated in hospitals and among the leading causes of HAIs. 2,16Bacillus spp. was the only non-pathogenic bacteria isolate and its distribution over the sampled surfaces showed that it was the most predominant organism colonising these surfaces (Figure 3).The extent of colonisation could be explained by the fact that Bacillus spp.are ubiquitous in nature with their spores able to resist environmental changes, withstand dry heat and certain chemical disinfectants for moderate periods. 16e colonisation of many surfaces by Bacillus spp. is therefore justified especially before cleaning however since the hospital is an environment with a lot of immuno-compromised patients; aseptic techniques should be able to deal with even non-pathogenic bacteria since they can cause infection in immuno-compromised individuals.The lavatory (31.8%), tap (25.8%), and writing desks (19.7%) recorded the highest pathogenic isolates.
The tap and the lavatory had the highest isolate of S. aureus confirming earlier research that showed that S. aureus colonises such areas as the sink and the lavatory. 17e 25.8% pathogenic isolates from taps also confirms earlier works that found taps to usually have the most pathogenic isolates but the least total bacterial colonisation as a result of their persistent contact with detergents during washing and thus would only be colonised by bacteria that are resistant to the detergent or one that was left there just before swabbing was done. 17There was no significant difference in occurrence of isolates before cleaning (87) and after cleaning (90) (P>0.8820).S. aureus had a moderate reduction from 19 isolates before cleaning to 14 after cleaning whereas Isolates of Bacillus spp.actually increased after cleaning to 66 compared with 52 before cleaning (Figure 4).
This means that the cleaning of the facilities did not have any effect at all on the surfaces swabbed.Across the various wards, the predominant organism isolated was Bacillus spp. with a total of 121 isolates whilst the area with the most pathogenic isolate was the theatre (77.9%) (Table I).This contrasts sharply with the expectation of the theatre to be the most sanitized area in the hospital due to the high potential of transmission of HAIs.The reason for the high presence of pathogenic bacteria could be as a result of the cleaning regimen which is able to get rid of the non-pathogenic bacteria but not the pathogenic ones making them the dominant colonizing bacteria in that environment.
All the wards had greater than the 15% pathogenic isolates required in a hospital ward to result in a 10% chance of patients acquiring HAIs. 12This clearly indicates a very high potential of HAIs transmission in the hospital.

CONCLUSION
This study demonstrates that fomites at the Volta Regional Hospital are highly contaminated with pathogenic S. aureus and E. coli and non-pathogenic Bacillus spp.
and also have a high potential of transmitting HAIs.

Figure 1 Figure 2
Figure 1 Distribution of culture results at each sampling period

Figure 3
Figure 3 Distribution of culture outcomes over all the sampled surfaces

Table I
Bacterial isolates from the different wards of the hospital