Science Diplomacy in West and Central Africa: State, Trends and Patterns

Review and reflection have been made on the evolving discipline of science diplomacy from the point of view of state, pattern and trend in West and Central Africa. While the state is embryonic and implemented consciously or unconsciously, the pattern indicates business is done with friends other than former colonial powers. From the three roles of science diplomacy – science in diplomacy, science for diplomacy and diplomacy for science – West and Central African states have been engaged with the latter. The priority areas involved aimed at creating capacity for science, technology and innovation through education and technology transfer. The players involved included governments, private sectors and individual scientists. Challenges were many but most important was the non-respect of commitments made by partners leading to failure to achieve stated objectives and targets. Suggestions for improvement have been made. Most important among these are transparency, clarity and respect of commitments earlier agreed. To benefit from the three roles of science diplomacy, states of the region need to create adequate critical capacity/mass based on a common vision founded on collective aims.


Résumé
Une revue et une réflexion ont été effectués sur l'évolution de la discipline de la diplomatie scientifique du point de vue de l'état, du modèle et de la tendance en Afrique de l'Ouest et Centrale.Alors que l'état est embryonnaire et mis en oeuvre consciemment ou inconsciemment, le modèle indique que les affaires se font avec des amis autres que les anciennes puissances coloniales.Des trois rôles de la diplomatie scientifique -la science dans la diplomatie, la science pour la diplomatie et la diplomatie pour la science -les États d'Afrique de l'Ouest et Centrale ont été engagés avec cette dernière.Les domaines prioritaires concernés visaient à créer des capacités pour la science, la technologie et l'innovation par le biais de l'éducation et du transfert de technologie.Les acteurs impliqués comprenaient les gouvernements, le secteur privé et les scientifiques individuels.Les défis étaient nombreux, mais le plus important était le non-respect des engagements pris par les partenaires, ce qui a conduit à l'échec de la réalisation des objectifs et des cibles fixés.Des suggestions d'amélioration ont été faites.Les plus importantes d'entre elles sont la transparence, la clarté et le respect des engagements pris antérieurement.Pour tirer parti des trois rôles de la diplomatie scientifique, les États de la région doivent créer une capacité/masse critique adéquate fondée sur une vision commune reposant sur des biens communs collectifs.Mots clés:Diplomatie Scientifique, Afrique Centrale, Afrique de l'Ouest 1. Introduction Science diplomacy is a relatively new subject/ discipline.The methods of science are quite different from the methods of diplomacy.An attempt to have the meaning of science diplomacy has led to expert workshops by the Royal Society, UK (2010) and the U.S. National Academy of Sciences (NRC, 2012) to reflect on the issue.Indeed, given the increasing importance/value of science in solving global, regional and national challenges, the White House Office of Science and Technology asked the U.S. National Academy of Sciences to organize the workshop to inform the US on Science Diplomacy.These workshops came up with three "frameworks" (Royal society, 2010) for analysis and conceptualization of science diplomacy and detailed analysis (NRC, 2012) which indicated that there is overlap between international cooperation and science diplomacy but that it is important not to confuse them.It was suggested that science diplomacy has always existed, but it has been practiced consciously or unconsciously (NRC, 2012).Science diplomacy enables the use of science, technology and innovation -'soft power' -instead of military force -'hard power'.
Activities under science diplomacy must be clear and transparent and the boundary between science cooperation and science diplomacy is not easy to establish (NRC, 2012).These efforts were reinforced by the Madrid Declaration (by experts) which stated the need to integrate science into foreign policy in the interest of national policies and shared global challenges (E.U.Horizon 2020, S4D4C : using science for/in diplomacy for addressing global challenges).Hence, the definition of science diplomacy approximately can be as follows.Science diplomacy is the art and practice of conducting negotiations between nations to advance science (STI) in the search for solutions to societal problems.Such search for solutions while being scalable and sustainable 'must build developing country science and technology capacity' (Dehgan and Colglazier, 2012).The negotiations may be bilateral or multilateral (Mbah, 2019).This definition of science diplomacy is better understood by visiting the roles related to it (see 4 below).Its meaning for Africa is, however, still to be reflected on (AMASA-15, 2019).As one of the recommendations of the 15th Annual Conference of African Science Academies, this implies that the role of science diplomacy for Africa in general and West and Central Africa in particular is still to be understood.
2. The objective of this write-up is, therefore, to initiate a reflection on the state, trends and patterns of science diplomacy in West and Central Africa and to encourage regional readiness to benefit from it.

Methods
The methods used for the write-up include exploitation of literature and experience of personal participation in bilateral and multilateral agreements/conventions and protocols.Reports of partnership projects and consultancies obtained from ministries or websites of participating partners were sought and used as well as journal publications.Typical keywords used for literature search included science, diplomacy, cooperation.

Types/Categories of Science Diplomacy
The Royal Society (RS, 2010) came out with three analytical frameworks while the US National Academy of Sciences (National Research Council,2012) came out with three roles related to science diplomacy.These are briefly presented as follows: 4(a)-Science advice to inform foreign policy: science in diplomacy.The place /role of science in negotiations between states: this has been evident in building relationships between US, Japan, China, USSR, etc. (NRC.2012).Nations of West and Central Africa with still a developing Science, Technology and Innovation(STI) capacity, have only natural resources to use during negotiations at bilateral or multilateral levels.
4(b)-Science cooperation to improve international relations between countries: science for diplomacy.Scientific advantage is used to drive relationship/ foreign policy among nations.Again, states of the region do not have a strong STI base to use as negotiation tool at fora.Yet, it is known that the use of STI knowledge to enhance diplomatic objectives has been recognized and it has achieved successes during the last decade, but has not been equally successful in addressing societal objectives/goals (Kontar et al, 2018).
4(c)-Facilitation/enabling international science cooperation: diplomacy for science.Negotiations between nations for use of scientific expertise/enterprise.This is the case of most nations of the region.A good example is the multilateral science cooperation that led to the Nigerian Space Programme (Isoun&Isoun, 2014) -

Win-Win or Win-Lose Negotiations
Regardless of the category in 4 above, the outcome of any negotiation must be a win-win result.Otherwise, one party is at a disadvantage while the other gains.Hence, to guarantee a winwin outcome, the negotiators must be adequately qualified and advised prior to negotiations.

Preparation for Negotiations
At this point, science advice is necessary and obligatory if national interest must not be disadvantaged/mortgaged.Considering the nature of negotiations, the negotiation team is constituted accordingly.Usually, it must be multidisciplinary whether or not the negotiations are bilateral or multilateral.

Science Diplomacy at National Level
This implies that « tact » is used to approach the policy makers/sectors to have them take science on board for development.Scientists/researchers are « selling » science.An important element of « tact » here is trust building between the science sector and the policy/user sector.

Science Diplomacy at International Level
Science diplomacy, an important tool by which states can more effectively promote and secure their foreign policy agendas, should be understood to enable evaluation of the potential of a given state for global issues in a systematic way (Olga Krasnyak, 2018).Each state has a national style in science diplomacy (Olga Krasnyak, 2018).The consttruction of a national style in science diplomacy involves understanding of the role of science at national levels and identification of the nation's diplomatic style (Olga Krasnyak, 2018).Each of the nations of the region probably has a national style which may correlate with the colonial legacy.
At the national level, this is evident from the « cooperation agreements between newly independent countries and their colonial powers.At the international level, this is evident from « block » voting (on decisions, conventions, treaties and protocols).However, some countries (e. g.Nigeria) have practiced science diplomacy (i.e.diplomacy for science) with superpowers (like Chinaand Russia, etc.).The case of the Nigerian Space Programme mentioned in 4(c) above is given more details here.The Programme is in communication satellite business.
- -SSTL trained the Nigerian scientists and engineers.
-Data on functioning from satellite monitoring centres located in Nigeria (Abuja), China (Kashi) -Note: Nigeria is the first black African Nation in space through science diplomacy (i.e.diplomacy for science).Can the science diplomacy involved be shared with the nations of the region?-

Role of the Scientific Community
The global scientific community has tried and is trying to have science as a global good for the global community (ISC, 2018(ISC, ,2019)).The international science council made up of 140 national and regional scientific associations including science academies(4 in West and Central Africa) consider science as a global good that should be available and accessible to the entire human society.Together, they produce statements on priority and global issues for the attention of governments and international organizations worldwide.The Network of African Science Academies(NASAC) and the Inter-Academy Partnership (science, health, policy)(IAP, 2019) , subsets of the ISC membership, in their programmes and partnerships target STI in priority areas.Here, the international partnership projects seek capacity building for its membership and scientists-policy maker workshops aimed at fitting science into policy.In addressing the UN sustainable development goals, STI is required.The STI solutions can assist in solving problems diplomacy cannot handle (i.e.science leapfrogs diplomacy) (Colglazier, 2016).Contributions from science could include identification of challenges, advice on effective actions, monitoring and search for innovative solutions (Colglazier, 2016).
In 2007 and2008, NASAC and the science academies of the G8 addressed a common statement to the G8 countries on capacity building for STI in African countries.Similar statements were also addressed (2007)  -Weak public-private partnership: the private sector is important in STI engagement.That means that science diplomacy should not be limited to government to government.This aspect is weak in the West and Central Africa subregions.
-Inflexibility of government programmes.The flexibility of government programme/policies should be « based on truth and mutual confidence » between the scientific and political communities.This implies that decision making and readiness to adapt based on evidence should apply.
-Lack of incentives: Scientists appear not to be engaged in diplomatic conversations.There is no evidence of « science attachés » at diplomatic representations where necessary.
-Lack of common voice within the scientific community: This refers to the failure of scientists to effectively engage policy makers and the public in understanding the role of science and its potential value in development and diplomacy (NRC, 2012).Very important is the absence of (i) a unified voice in favour of science, and (ii) experience within the political institutions to use science and to communicate with the scientific community.
-Broken Promises: The failure of governments to implement commitments made in bilateral, multilateral, etc, meetings/projects, thereby leading to the undermining of the credibility of the process of science diplomacy, e.g.Project Mindif and University of Dschang -University of Florida (USAID) land grant project in Cameroon where government failed to respect terms of partner contribution and unilateral decision on institutional restructuring, respectively.The USAID simply withdrew from the projects. -

Improving the Process of Science Diplomacy
Given the preceding, the improved use of science diplomacy includes attention to the following suggestions (NRC, 2012): -Better partnership between governments, private sector and NGOs in developing countries (e.g.West and Central African countries) and developed countries (e.g.countries in North America, Europe, etc.) -Involvement of young people (e.g, National Young Academies, Global Young Academy) in efforts of science diplomacy.
-Inclusion of scientific capacity in foreign ser vice science attaches at diplomatic representations and science advisers in Ministries of Foreign Affairs as may be deemed necessary.
-Encouragement of competition: This is necessary to handle global challenges in food security, energy needs, climate change, infectious diseases, etc.
Emphasis on educational and professional development: A strong emphasis on STI in higher education and professional development will satisfy economic development needs and major goals of science diplomacy.« Unfortunately, in some developing countries (many in West and Central Africa), higher education is separate from research (e.g.Cameroon).Higher education is « buffer zone between high school and labour force entry » instead of providing facilities to develop relevant skills for modern workplace, innovation and job creation » (NRC, 2012).There is need to develop new communication tools to enable science programs and scientists to communicate with non -English speaking countries given that English is the language of science.
-Effective involvement of politicians and the public:Scientists need to develop appropriate communication skills/experiences to interact with national/international politicians and the public by publishing science diplomacy related articles in foreign affairs journals to indicate « importance of science in international affairs » and improve science culture by interaction of senior/credible scientists (national/international) with the states of the region.
-Emphasize interface of science and policy: The creation of centres of excellence focusing on science-policy interface (e.g. program of policy analysis of former Institute of Human Sciences, Cameroon).Any « discourse on science diplomacy should not only be based on emotions but mainly on research to see whether it is efficient ».
-Giving importance to transparency and clarity: The process of science diplomacy needs to be clear, transparent and direct « the need to be selective in choosing clear terms to explain what is being done and why.It is important for parties to define and communicate clearly the national interest to other parties.This is necessary to build mutual trust and avoid future misunderstandings.
-Given that nations of the region may have different science diplomacy styles (due to different colonial legacies (British, French, Spanish, Portuguese and vestiges of German), can these nations forge a science diplomacy that is based on their « collective commons » to enable them benefit from the three roles of science diplomacy?It is inescapable that capacity in science and technology is a required cornerstone.This could be achieved through « collective investment » around their « global commons ».

Response to Science Diplomacy
The response to efforts of the newly independent countries of West and Central Africa can be seen in the success or failure of science diplomacy conscious or unconscious efforts made from 1960 to date.Such efforts were and are in the area of diplomacy for science.They were and continue to be in capacity building (human and infrastructural).Examples include: a) African Graduate Fellowship Programme for American Universities(AFGRAD)  Science advice is general -needed for development(social, economic.Cultural).Hence, it is essential forthe formulation of all policiesincluding foreign policy(an area usually reserved for diplomacy).Consequently, it intervenes in national, bilateral and multilateral arrangements.
In foreign policy, science advice is necessary to guide /orient the policy without mortgaging the long term interests of the state.Indeed, it is needed to determine the 'diplomatic style' of the nationwhere should emphasis be ?What is exchanged for what?Science advice is evidence-based while science diplomacy is evidence-based and tactbased.Hence,science diplomacy should be evidencebased(presenting evidence, all the evidence) and tact-based.The importance of science in diplomacy has been emphasized by Colglazier(2012), Science Adviser to the US Secretary of State.
Nigeria Sat-1: launched in 2003 (within the DMC consortium) from Russia, mission control by Nigerian engineers, is a political, technological and commercial success, -Nigeria Sat-2: launched in 2011 from Russia, mission control by Nigerian engineers at Abuja (Nigeria), -Nigeria Sat-X: full flight satellite by Nigerian engineers, launched in 2011, Russia, -Cooperation for all of this was with Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd (SSTL), UK.
They were engaged in diplomacy for science, one of the roles of science diplomacy.To enable the region benefit from the three roles of science diplomacy, states of the region may need to create critical capacity/mass guided by a common vision which is founded on their collective commons.NASAC.2008.Joint Statement by the Network of African Science Academies (NASAC), the Inter-American Network of Academies of Sciences (IANAS) and the Science Council of Asia (SCA) to the G8 on the Role of Science, Technology and Innovation in Promoting Global Development.Japan, 7-9 July 2008.Nasac08.pdf.(accessed 8/6/020) NASAC.2019, AMASA-15 Report on: Science, technology and innovation for food security and poverty alleviation in Africa :The Role of Academies.www.nasaccomline.orgNRC.2012.US and International Perspectives on Global Science Policy and Science Diplomacy : Report of a Workshop, Washington DC : the National Academies Press.https://doi.org/10.171226/13300 Past pograms-The Africa-America Institute.The African Graduate Fellowship Program (AFGRAD), 1963 -1997.www.aionnline.org.alumni.past-programsRS-DFID ACBI.2020.https://royalsociety.org/ grants-schemes-awards/grants/africa-capacity/ RS. 2010.New Frontiers in Science Diplomacy: Navigating the Changing Balance of Power.pp.33 16.Appendix The Relation Between Science Advice and Science Diplomacy